my-homo-family

what are we going to do

2007-10-21T23:11:00.000+03:30

friends sorry for long long breaks
as soon as posssible i will write again(nearly 1 month)
as you see we have just finished human skeleton and from now on i will start
new subject
Brain Endocasts
first i will share some information about brain system
our main reference is the human fossil record/volum 3/brain endocasts,the paleological evidence by ralph l.holloway
after brain we will disscus about DNA and then bio and evolution
and for the last sessionswe will talk about the use of this information in field anthropology.

just remeber

2007-04-06T18:36:00.000+03:30

It is covinient to apply specific directional terms to foot just like hand.
Planter: refers to sole of the foot, its inferior surface in standard anatomical position.

Dorsal: opposite,superior surface.

Proximal/posterior: toward the tibia

Distal/anterior: twoard toe tips and the distalmost phalanges are reffered to as " terminal"

The Big Toe: somtimes called: Hallux
and its Ray is idetified as Ray1.
other rays are numbered as the hand.

Tarsal

2007-04-06T14:02:00.000+03:30

The 7 tarsal bone combine with the 5 metatarsals to form the longitudinal and traverse arches of the foot.

The talus articulates superiorly with the distal tibia and fibula at the ankle joint.

The Calcaneus forms the hell of the foot, supports talus and articulates anteriorly with the cuboid(3th largest tarsal bone)

The metatarsals articulate proximally with the cubid and three cuneiforms.

The 7th tarsal = the navicular, is interposed between the head of the talus and these cuneiforms.

Talus

called=Astragalus in other animals.

second largest in tarsal and is placed between the tibia and fibula superiorly and the calcaneus inferiorly.

no muscle attach to this bone.

It rests atop the calcaneus and articulates distally with the navicular.It forms the lower member of the talocrural joint.

tarsal parts are:

head

body

trochlea(saddle-shaped)

neck

groove for flexor hallucis longus

calcaneal (subtalar articular)

sulcus tali

Calcaneus

Heel bone

largest tarsal bone (second largest tarsal bone:talus/third:cuboid) + largest bone of the foot

it is located inferior to the talus and articulates anteriorly(distally) with the cuboid.

calcaneus parts are:

calcaneal tuber

lateral /medial processes

sustentaculum tali

sustentacular sulcus (groove)

peroneal tubercle

Cuboid

sits on the lateral side of the foot sandwiched between the calcaneus and fourth and fifth metatarsals,articulating with the navicular and 3th cuneiform.

it is recognized by its large size and projecting,pointed,proximal articular surface. it is the most cuboidal or cube-shaped,of the tarsal bones.

The cuboid tuberosity is a large tuberosity on the inferolateral surface of the bone.

Navicular

it is named for the strongly concave proximal surface that articulates with the head of the talus.

On the distal surface the navicular has a large facet divided by 2 ridges.

These set off the articular planes the 3 cuneiforms.

navicular often articulates with a large,blunt projection on the medial side of the bone.this tubercle is the main insertion of the Tibialis Posterior Muscle, a planter flexor of the foot and toes.

Medial (firsth)cuneiform

largest in 3 cuneiform.

sits between navicular and the base of the first metatarsal,articulating with these as well as the second cuneiform and the base of the MT2.It is the less wedge-shape than the other cuneiform and it is distinguished by the kidney-shaped facet for the base of the first metatarsal.

Intermediate (second) cuneiform

smallest of three cuneiforms.it is located between the navicula and second meta tarsal.also it articulates on either side with the first and third cuneiforms.

Lateral (third) cuneiform

it is the intermediate in size between the others,it is located in the center of the foot, articulating distally with the second,third and fourth metatarsals.medially it contacts the intermediate cuneform, laterally the cuboid, and proximally the navicular.

Tarsal ossifies from 1 center:(calcaneus is the exception) which has anepiphysis at its posterior end.

Most the tarsals are larger than carpals, they are more often recovered from archaeological sites.

foot

2007-04-06T12:59:00.000+03:30

Foot's bones are obivousley the same as hand bones.

total bone's of foot(each): 26 (one less than each hand)

7 tarsal bones:

2 in proximal row

4 distal row

1 centered between rows

the tarsal are distally followed by a single row of 5 metatarsals

farther distally:

single row of 5 proximal phalanges,

single row of 4 intermediates phalanges,

single row of 5 distal/terminal phalanges.

(hand=)there are small Sesamoid bones that lie within tendons of the foot. in foot sesamoids is usually found below the head of first metatarsal.

elements of the foot skeleton :

tarsals

metatarsals

phalanges

The human foot has dramaticlly changed during its evolution from a grasping organ to a structure adapted to bipedal locomotion.

Most of the foot flexibity, and grasping abilities have been lost in humans as the foot had adapted to shock absorption and propulsion.

Knee

2007-03-30T16:53:00.000+03:30

In humans the knee refers to the joints between the femur, tibia and patella. In quadrupeds, particularly horses and ungulates the term is commonly used to refer to the carpus, probably because of its similar hinge or ginglymus action. The joints between the femur, tibia and patella are known as the stifle in quadrupeds. In insects and other animals the term knee is used widely to refer to any ginglymus joint.

a comparison beteween bony anatomy of the human pelvic gridle and leg with that of our closest living realtives, the african apes,reveals profound evolutionary changes related to the acquisition of bipedality more than 4 million years.

Fibula

2007-03-30T16:02:00.000+03:30

The long thin bone

Beside (lateral)tibia
Articulate twice with tibia,once with the talus
The main part in forming the lateral border of the ankle joint
Little wieght

Blood Supply
The blood supply is important for planning free tissue transfer because the fibula is commonly used to reconstruct the mandible. The shaft is supplied in its middle third by a large nutrient vessel from the peroneal artery. It is also perfused from its periosteum which receives many small branches from the peroneal artery. The proximal head and the epiphysis are supplied by a branch of the anterior tibial artery. In harvesting the bone the middle third is always taken and the ends preserved (4cm proximally and 6cm distally)

The fibula is ossified from three centers, one for the shaft, and one for either end.
Ossification begins in the body about the eighth week of fetal life, and extends toward the extremities. At birth the ends are cartilaginous.
Ossification commences in the lower end in the second year, and in the upper about the fourth year. The lower epiphysis, the first to ossify, unites with the body about the twentieth year; the upper epiphysis joins about the twenty-fifth year.

the proximal and distal fibular ends are distinctive and are rarely confused with other bones.
fibular shafts are thin,straight and usually quatrilateral (sometimes rectangular) with sharp crests and corners.they are thus more irregular in cross section than either radial or ulnar shafts.

TIBIA

2007-03-24T16:36:00.000+03:30

The major weight-bearing bone of the lower leg
tibia articulates:

proximal: distal femur
twice lateral: fibula ( one proximal/one distal)
distal: talus( is called: astragalus in other animalsplace between fibula and tibia)
tibia parts are:
tibia plateau
medial condyle
lateral //
intercondylar eminence
medial intercondylar tubercle
lateral // //
superior fibular articulate facet
tibial tuberosity
tibial shaft
soleal (popliteal)lines
nutrient foramen
anterior surface (anterior crest)
medial surface
interosseus surface
// crest
medial malleolus
fibular notch
inferior fibular articulate surface
malleolar groove

Tibia ossifies from three center
shaft and two each end of the bone

Tibia shaft is mauch larger than ulnar or radial shafts the proximal and distal ends could be mistaken with proximal articular surface for the body of vertebra but the tibia articular surface is much smoother and denser.

Patella

2007-03-17T20:12:00.000+03:30

largest seamoid bone,articulated with the patellar surface of the distal femur(patellar notch). The patella rides in the Tendon the caudriceps femoris- the largest muscle of thigh and the primaay extensor of the knee. The patella functions to protect the knee joint, to lenghthen the lever arm of the quadricep, and to increase the area of contact between the patellar tendon and the femur.

Patella parts are:

Apex

Lateral articular facet

medial articular facet

the patella ossifies from a single center.

this bone might be mistaken for an os coxae fragment, but only in vary fragmentary state. The acetabulum of the os coxae is strongly hollowed, as opposed to the much flatter articular surface of the patella.

Patella is triangular in shape.its thin,pointed apex is distal, and the thicker, blunter end is proximal.

the lateral articular facet (articulates with the lateral condyle of the femur)= larger of the two facets.

Leg

2007-03-16T13:43:00.000+03:30

Leg

2007-03-15T22:55:00.000+03:30

Leg: Femur,Patella,Tibia,Fibula
The evolution of the leg mirrors is like arm.The single thight bone, the femur, is the serial homolog of the upper arm bone,the humerus. Likewise, the lower bones of the leg, the tibia and fibula,are serial homolgs of the radius and ulna. the largest sesamoid bone in the body, the patella,lies at the knee joint. The bipedal locomotor mode practiced by homonids has resulted in major specializations of leg bones.
Femur
is the longest,heaviest,and strongest bone in the body.it supports all of the body's weight during standing,walking and running.
because of its strength and density, it is frequently recovered in forensic, archaeological and paleontological contexts. The femur is valuable bone because of the information it can provide on the stature of an individual.
the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the os coxae. Distally, it articulates with the patella and proximal tibia. The leg's actions at the hip include medial and lateral rotation, abduction, flexion and extension. At knee, motion is far more restricted,confined mostly to flexion and extension. Although the main knee action is that of a sliding hinge, this joint is one of the most complex in the body.
femur parts are:
head
spiral line
pectinel line
femoral shaft
linea aspera
nutrient foramen
medial supracondylar line (ridge)
popliteal surface
lateral condyle
lateral epicondyle
popliteal groove
medial condyle
intercondylar fossa (notch)
patellar surface

the femur ossifies from 5 centers: one for shaft, head,distal end,each trochanter.

the femoral head has a fovea (fossa) and is more complete sphere than the humeral head
the femoral shaft is larger,has a thicker cortex and is rounder in cross section than any other shaft. It has only one sharp corner,the linea aspera.

For isolated femoral heads the fovea is medial and displaced posteriorly and inferiorly. The posterinferior head-neck junction is more deeply excavated than anterosuperior junction.

useful

2007-01-24T20:29:00.000+03:30

befor analyzing the various elemnts of hand we must remeber the importence of anatomical nomenclature . terms of aterior,posterior,medial and lateral can only be applied when the specimen is in proper anatomical position.
it is useful to supplement the directional terms when possible, using these terms:

anterior= palmar
posterior= dorsal
medial=ulnar= little finger side
lateral= radial=tumbside

hand phalanges

2007-01-24T19:30:00.000+03:30

The phalange are all shorter than MC ,lack rounded heads and are antreposteriorly flattedned in shafts. The thunb phalanges are shorter and squatter than the others, and the thumb lacks intermediate phalanx. The expanded proximal end of each phalanx is the base. the distal end is head ( proximal or intermediate phalanges) or the distal tip (distal phalanges only). the non articulate tubercles adjacent to the MC heads and the phalangeal joints are attachement points for the collateral ligament.
dorsal surface ofthe hand phalanges are smooth and rounded. The palmar surfaces, incontrast, are flat and more roughened,especially along either site of the shaft, where raised ridge mark attachment sites for the fibrous flexor shealts, tissues that prevent the flexor tendos from " bow stringing" away from the bones as the fingers are felxed.

hand phanalges each ossify from 2 centers:

1- for shaft plus distal end

2- for the base

hand phalanges have shafts whose palmar surface are flattened, forming a half-circle in cross section. Foot phalanx shafts are circular in cross section.

MC

2007-01-24T18:58:00.000+03:30

The metacarpus is the intermediate part of the hand skeleton that is located between the fingers distally and the carpus which forms the connection to the forearm.
they are all tubular bones,with round distal articulate surfaces (heads) and more squarish proximal ends (base).
all of the four carpals in the distal row articulate with one or more metacarpal bases:
Trapezium =MC1 + MC2
Trapezoid = MC2
Capitate= MC2+MC3+MC4
Hamate= MC4+MC5
{first MC= Thumb}

each MC except MC1 ossifies from 2 centers : 1- shaft (body) + base
: 2- distal extremity (head)
MC1 (thumb) :seprate center for it base (not distal extremity)

MC2-5 could easily be confuse with MT 2-5 :
metatarsal shafts are larger in diameter relative to lenght
metacarpal heads are more rounded than the mediolaterally compressed metatarsal heads.

carpal bones

2007-01-24T17:50:00.000+03:30

BONES OF HAND

Proximal: A=Scaphoid, B=Lunate, C=Triquetral, D=Pisiform

Distal: E=Trapezium, F=Trapezoid, G=Capitate, H=Hamate

The eight bones of the adult wrist are often described as cubical in shape with six surface.eachccarpal projections. the hook of the hamate and the pisiform underlie the medial edge of the palm at the base of metacarpal 5.

The scaphoid tubercle and trapzium crest underlie the laterla edge of the plam, at the base of the thumb metacarpal.

Carpel Tunnel : fibrous band stretched transversley between carpal elevation.

Proximal row incorporation ( from Radial to Ulnar) :

scaphoid-> articulate with radius

lunate-> // // //

triquetral

pisiform

Distal row of carplas (from Radius to Ulnar):

trapezium ( greater multangular)

trapezoid ( lesser multangular)

capitate

hamate

carpal bones each ossify from single center.

Many skeleton , especially those from archaeological sites, have incoplete hand because of the postmortem disturbance of the skeleton before excavation for exp, rodant

these animals often move smaller skeletal elements during their burrowing activities

seamoids, pisiform, terminal phalanges are often lose in excavation

confusion of carpale bone with tarsal bones.

hand

2007-01-24T16:46:00.000+03:30

The hand is a complex structure that represents the distal tetrapod limb segment.It is the modified end of the ancestral dish fin, a structure based on jointed bony rays. In the generalized reptilian hand, a set of small wrist bones (carpals) forms the foundation for five digits. Each digit is composed of one large proximal segment (a metacarpal) and a chain of additional bones (the phalanges). digital reduction and modification have occured in a great variety of mammals, from the wings of bats to the single tors of the modern horses. Humans have retained the generalized pattern of five digits. there are a total of 27 bones in each human hand, 8 carpal bones arranged in 2 rows, followed distaly by a single row of 5 proximal phalanges, a single row of 4 intermediate phalanges, and a dingle row of five distal/terminal phalanges.

In addition to the 27 major hand bones, there are small bones called SESAMOID bones(small ossified nodes) that lie with in tendors of the hand. In the hand, a pair of sesamoid is usally found in at the palmar surface of the first metacarpal head.

hand skeleton :

Carpals

Metacarpals

Hand phalanges

the term of RAY= often used to each finger/toe/ including the digit's phalanges and metacarpal

Thumb ray= Pollex= ray 1

Index finger= ray 2

Middle finser= ray 3

Ring finger= ray 4

Littel finger= ray 5

Radius and Ulna

2006-10-11T22:40:00.000+03:30

Radius
the shortest of the 3 arm bones. It is named for its action, a turning movement about the capitulum of the humerus, which allows thebone to rotate relative to the more fixed ulna.
The radius articulates proximally with the humerus at the capitulum and medially with the ulna on both proximal and distal end.
Distally, the radius articulates with two carpal bones of the wrist.

Ossification
The radius is ossified from three centers:
one for the body, and one for either extremity. That for the body makes its appearance near the center of the bone, during the eighth week of fetal life. About the end of the second year, ossification commences in the lower end; and at the fifth year, in the upper end. The upper epiphysis fuses with the body at the age of seventeen or eighteen years, the lower about the age of twenty. An additional center sometimes found in the radial tuberosity, appears about the fourteenth or fifteenth year.

Ulna
The ulna is the longest, thinest bone of the forearm. It articulate proximally with the trochlea of the humerus and head of the radius. Distally it articulate with the ulnar notch of the radius and with an articulare disk that seprates it from the carpal bones and provides freer rotation of the hand and radius around the ulna than is seen in many other mammals.
Ossification
The ulna is ossified from three centers:
one each for the body, the inferior extremity, and the top of the olecranon. Ossification begins near the middle of the body, about the eighth week of fetal life, and soon extends through the greater part of the bone. At birth the ends are cartilaginous. About the fourth year, a center appears in the middle of the head, and soon extends into the styloid process. About the tenth year, a center appears in the olecranon near its extremity, the chief part of this process being formed by an upward extension of the body. The upper epiphysis joins the body about the sixteenth, the lower about the twentieth year.

Arm: Humerus, Radius and Ulna

2006-10-11T21:24:00.000+03:30

The firs vertebrae lacked jaws. These animals, similar to lampreys and hagfish, also lacked paired fins. Jaws and fins evolved 400 million years ago, allowing fish to more effectively locomate and feed. Jawed fish have paired fins set on flat plates of bone that are attached to the muscles of their body walls. The paired fins, felxible fans of small bones, are used primilary as aid in stablizing and streeing. The limbs of terrestial animals evolved from this structural arrangement as fins were transformed into rod-bearing segments. Although the limbs of land vertebrates appear very diffrent from fish fins. the two homologous structres are actually highly comparable.
Each vertebrate has a base and 3 segments.
The base, The limb gridles = The old basal fin plates of fish, which evolved to take on the function of transferring the weight of the body to the terrestial tetrapod's limbs.
The proximal vertebrate limb segment constitute the upper arm and thight .
The intermediate limb segments, the forearm and foreleg, each bear 2 bone in humans, the radius and ulna in the upper limb, and their serial homologs, the tibia and fibula, in the leg.

Humerus
The upper arm bone. it is the largest bone of the upper limb. It comprises a proximal end wih a round, articular head, a shaft, and an irregular distal end. The humerus articulates proximally with the glenoid fossa of the scapula and distally with both the radius and the ulna.
Ossification
The humerus is ossified from eight centers, one for each of the following parts:
the body, the head, the greater tubercle, the lesser tubercle, the capitulum, the trochlea, and one for each epicondyle.
The center for the body appears near the middle of the bone in the eighth week of fetal life, and soon extends toward the extremities. At birth the humerus is ossified in nearly its whole length, only the extremities remaining cartilaginous. During the first year, sometimes before birth, ossification commences in the head of the bone, and during the third year the center for the greater tubercle, and during the fifth that for the lesser tubercle, make their appearance.
By the sixth year the centers for the head and tubercles have joined, so as to form a single large epiphysis, which fuses with the body about the twentieth year.
The lower end of the humerus is ossified as follows. At the end of the second year ossification begins in the capitulum, and extends medialward, to form the chief part of the articular end of the bone; the center for the medial part of the trochlea appears about the age of twelve. Ossification begins in the medial epicondyle about the fifth year, and in the lateral about the thirteenth or fourteenth year. About the sixteenth or seventeenth year, the lateral epicondyle and both portions of the articulating surface, having already joined, unite with the body, and at the eighteenth year the medial epicondyle becomes joined to it.

Scapula

2006-09-14T11:03:00.000+03:30

It is a large, flat triangular bone with two basic surfaces, The posterior (dorsal) and the costal (anterior, or ventral). there are three borders that meet in three angles. The scapula articulates with the clavicle and the humerus.

The anterior (front) side of the scapula shows the fossa subscapularis (subscapular fossa) to which the subscapularis muscle attaches.
The posterior surface of the scapula is divided by a bony projection, the spina scapulae (opposite to the fossa subscapularis) into the supraspinous fossa and the infraspinous fossa. This projection is called the spine of the scapulae. It begins flat at the base of the shoulder bone, ascends in distal direction for all animals but carnivores and humans to its peak at about the middle of the scapula, this peak is called tuber scapulae. After this peak the spina scapulae steeply decays in height. For humans and carnivores and bovinae the spina runs into a forward pointing hook called acromion, which continues past the main part of the bone.
Another hook-like projection comes off the lateral angle of the scapula, and is called the coracoid process. The end of this hook is the site of attachment of many muscles, such as the coracobrachialis muscle.
Near the base of the coracoid process, so also on the lateral angle, there is a depression called the glenoid cavity. This forms the socket that the head of the humerus articulates with.

When fragmentary, the scapula might be mistaken for the pelvis. In all of its flat part, how ever the scapula is thinner than the pelvis. Indeed the scapular blade is mostly a single, thin layer of bone instead of spongy bone sandwiched between cortices as in the pelvis.

The fragment of scapular balde or infant scapulas could be mistaken for wings of the sphenoid, but the thin bone of the scapula is bounded by broken surfaces whereas broken sphenoid pieces normally have free or sutural edges.

Appendicula Skeleton: Shoulder Gridle 1: Clavicle

2006-09-13T18:12:00.000+03:30

The depature of fishes from their aquatic habitat brought profound changes in locomotion. The forelimb gridle ( shoulder gridle), attached to the rear of head, detached and moved tailward, leaving a flexible neck. As this gridle moved back, some of the head's dermal armor and gill muscles remained attached to it, and our own shoulder gridle is still attached to the skull by derivatives of some of these primitive gill muscles. The remaining dermal bone element constitutes part of our clavicle. The human shoulder gridle provides support and articulation for tht humerus and anchors a variety of muscles. The clavicle's function az a strut for the shoulder is made obvious when fracture of this bone is accompanied by anteromedial collaps of the shoulder. The shoulder gridle embraces the Thorax posteriorly, laterallym and anteriorly, providing a platform for movements of the forelimb.

Clavicle

The clavicle forms the anterior portion of the shoulder girdle. It is a long bone, curved somewhat like the italic letter f, and placed nearly horizontally at the upper and anterior part of the thorax, immediately above the first rib.Medially, it articulates with the manubrium of the sternum(breast-bone) at the sternoclavicular joint. At its lateral end it articulates with the acromion of the scapula (shoulder blade) at the acromioclavicular joint.

It is shorter, thinner, less curved, and smoother in women than in men.

It has a rounded medial end and a flattened lateral end.

The clavicle serves several functions:
It serves as a rigid support from which the scapula and free limb are suspended. This arrangement keeps the upper limb away from the thorax so that the arm has maximum range of movement.
Covers the cervicoaxillary canal (passageway between the neck and arm), through which several important structures pass.
Transmits impacts from the upper limb to the axial skeleton.
Even though it is classified as a long bone, the clavicle has no medullary (bone marrow) cavity like other long bones. It is made up of spongy (cancellous) bone with a shell of compact bone. The clavicle bone is the only bone that does not have marrow. It is a dermal bone derived from elements originally attached to the skull.

Male or Female? Pelvis

2006-09-11T21:22:00.000+03:30

Differences between the Male and Female Pelves:

(male pelvis.left)

I think pelvis is the main part in human skeleton that we use for showing male or female.

( female pelvis .up. right)

The female pelvis is distinguished from that of the male by its bones being more delicate and its depth less. The whole pelvis is less massive, and its muscular impressions are slightly marked. The ilia are less sloped, and the anterior iliac spines more widely separated; hence the greater lateral prominence of the hips. The preauricular sulcus is more commonly present and better marked. The superior aperture of the lesser pelvis is larger in the female than in the male; it is more nearly circular, and its obliquity is greater. The cavity is shallower and wider; the sacrum is shorter wider, and its upper part is less curved; the obturator foramina are triangular in shape and smaller in size than in the male. The inferior aperture is larger and the coccyx more movable. The sciatic notches are wider and shallower, and the spines of the ischia project less inward. The acetabula are smaller and look more distinctly forward . The ischial tuberosities and the acetabula are wider apart, and the former are more everted. The pubic symphysis is less deep, and the pubic arch is wider and more rounded than in the male, where it is an angle rather than an arch.
The size of the pelvis varies not only in the two sexes, but also in different members of the same sex, and does not appear to be influenced in any way by the height of the individual. Women of short stature, as a rule, have broad pelves. Occasionally the pelvis is equally contracted in all its dimensions, so much so that all its diameters measure 12.5 mm. less than the average, and this even in well-formed women of average height. The principal divergences, however, are found at the superior aperture, and affect the relation of the antero-posterior to the transverse diameter. Thus the superior aperture may be elliptical either in a transverse or an antero-posterior direction, the transverse diameter in the former, and the antero-posterior in the latter, greatly exceeding the other diameters; in other instances it is almost circular.

Pelvis

2006-09-11T21:12:00.000+03:30

The pelvis (pl. pelvises or pelves) is the bony structure located at the base of the spine (properly known as the caudal end). The pelvis incorporates the socket portion of the hip joint for each leg (in bipeds) or hind leg (in quadrupeds). It forms the lower limb (or hind-limb) girdle of the skeleton.

The pelvis is symmetrical and each side is actually made up of three separate bones

the upper half (the broad "wings") is the ilium
the middle (the top half of the lower "loops") is the pubis
the bottom (the lower half of the "loops") is the ischium
These three bones fuse together with age and are collectively known as the hip bone, os coxa, or the innominate bone. The pelvis is joined to the sacrum bone by ligaments (the sacroiliac joint), and the hip bones nest in specially shaped sockets (the acetabulum) on each side. The upper edge of the ilium is known as the iliac crest. The place at the front of the pelvis where the two sides join together is called the symphysis pubis. This is normally a very inflexible joint, but it softens and becomes more flexible during late pregnancy, allowing it to expand during labour for the baby's head to pass through.

Position of the Pelvis:In the erect posture, the pelvis is placed obliquely with regard to the trunk: the plane of the superior aperture forms an angle of from 50° to 60°, and that of the inferior aperture one of about 15° with the horizontal plane. The pelvic surface of the symphysis pubis looks upward and backward, the concavity of the sacrum and coccyx downward and forward. The position of the pelvis in the erect posture may be indicated by holding it so that the anterior superior iliac spines and the front of the top of the symphysis pubis are in the same vertical plane.

Coccyx

2006-09-11T20:33:00.000+03:30

The vestigial guman tail,is highly variable in shape, with three to five (most often four) variably fused segments. The rudimentary vertebrae of coccyx show articular and transverse process superiorley,but t hey lack pedicles, laminae, and spinous processes. The sacral articulation is via the superior coccygeal body as well as a relatively large pair of tubercles called the Cornau. The latter are rudimentary articular processes that contact the sacrum. The coccyx may fuse with the sacrum late in life.

As with the sacrumm the individual vartebral elements of the coccyx decrease in size inferiorly, and horizonyal lines of fusion can be seen between adjacent coccylgeal vertebrae. The coccyx pelvic muscles and ligaments.

female or male? Sacrum

2006-09-11T18:12:00.000+03:30

Differences in the Sacrum of the Male and Female
In the female the sacrum is shorter and wider than in the male; the lower half forms a greater angle with the upper; the upper half is nearly straight, the lower half presenting the greatest amount of curvature. The bone is also directed more obliquely backward; this increases the size of the pelvic cavity and renders the sacrovertebral angle more prominent. In the male the curvature is more evenly distributed over the whole length of the bone, and is altogether greater than in the female.

some pic

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dorsal surface

base of Sacrum

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The sacral and coccygeal vertebræ:
consist at an early period of life of nine separate segments which are united in the adult, so as to form two bones, five entering into the formation of the sacrum, four into that of the coccyx. The sacral vertebrae fuse during adolesence into one immoble, wedgeshaped bone,the sacrum. This bone is typically formed from five segments but sometimes is made of four or six.
location: at the base of the vertebral column and articulates on the left and right with the two Os Coxae and inferiorly with the small Coccyx.
The sacrum: (fig.1)

is a large, triangular bone at the base of the spine and at the upper and back part of the pelvic cavity, The sacrum is a large,triangular bone at the base of the spine and at the upper and back part of the pelvic cavity, where it is inserted like a wedge between the two hip bones. Its upper part or base articulates with the last lumbar vertebra, its apex with the tailbone or coccyx.
It is curved upon itself and placed obliquely. It is concave facing forwards, thus its curvature is considered a kyphosis. The base projects forward as the sacral promontory internally, and articulates with the last lumbar vertebra to form the prominent sacrovertebral angle. The central part is directed backward, so as to give increased capacity to the pelvic cavity.
The name is derived from the Latin sacer, "sacred", a translation of the Greek hieron (osteon), meaning sacred or strong bone. This is supposedly derived from the belief that it could not be destroyed and was the part that would allow rising from the dead.

pelvic surface

Pelvic Surface (facies pelvina):

The pelvic surface ( fig. up) is concave from above downward, and slightly so from side to side. Its middle part is crossed by four transverse ridges, the positions of which correspond with the original planes of separation between the five segments of the bone. The portions of bone intervening between the ridges are the bodies of the sacral vertebræ. The body of the first segment is of large size, and in form resembles that of a lumbar vertebra; the succeeding ones diminish from above downward, are flattened from before backward, and curved so as to accommodate themselves to the form of the sacrum, being concave in front, convex behind. At the ends of the ridges are seen the anterior sacral foramina, four in number on either side, somewhat rounded in form, diminishing in size from above downward, and directed lateralward and forward; they give exit to the anterior divisions of the sacral nerves and entrance to the lateral sacral arteries. Lateral to these foramina are the lateral parts of the sacrum, each consisting of five separate segments at an early period of life; in the adult, these are blended with the bodies and with each other. Each lateral part is traversed by four broad, shallow grooves, which lodge the anterior divisions of the sacral nerves, and are separated by prominent ridges of bone which give origin to the Piriformis muscle.
If a sagittal section be made through the center of the sacrum the bodies are seen to be united at their circumferences by bone, wide intervals being left centrally, which, in the fresh state, are filled by the intervertebral fibrocartilages. In some bones this union is more complete between the lower than the upper segments.

Lateral Surface:

The lateral surface is broad above(fig. 1), but narrowed into a thin edge below. The upper half presents in front an ear-shaped surface, the auricular surface, covered with cartilage in the fresh state, for articulation with the ilium. Behind it is a rough surface, the sacral tuberosity, on which are three deep and uneven impressions, for the attachment of the posterior sacroiliac ligament. The lower half is thin, and ends in a projection called the inferior lateral angle; medial to this angle is a notch, which is converted into a foramen by the transverse process of the first piece of the coccyx, and transmits the anterior division of the fifth sacral nerve. The thin lower half of the lateral surface gives attachment to the sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligaments, to some fibers of the Glutæus maximus behind, and to the Coccygeus in front.

Dorsal Surface (facies dorsalis):

The dorsal surface is convex and narrower than the pelvic. In the middle line it displays a crest, the middle sacral crest, surmounted by three or four tubercles, the rudimentary spinous processes of the upper three or four sacral vertebræ. On either side of the middle sacral crest is a shallow groove, the sacral groove, which gives origin to the Multifidus, the floor of the groove being formed by the united laminæ of the corresponding vertebræ. The laminæ of the fifth sacral vertebra, and sometimes those of the fourth, fail to meet behind, and thus a hiatus or deficiency occurs in the posterior wall of the sacral canal. On the lateral aspect of the sacral groove is a linear series of tubercles produced by the fusion of the articular processes which together form the indistinct sacral articular crests. The articular processes of the first sacral vertebra are large and oval in shape; their facets are concave from side to side, look backward and medialward, and articulate with the facets on the inferior processes of the fifth lumbar vertebra. The tubercles which represent the inferior articular processes of the fifth sacral vertebra are prolonged downward as rounded processes, which are named the sacral cornua, and are connected to the cornua of the coccyx. Lateral to the articular processes are the four posterior sacral foramina; they are smaller in size and less regular in form than the anterior, and transmit the posterior divisions of the sacral nerves. On the lateral side of the posterior sacral foramina is a series of tubercles, which represent the transverse processes of the sacral vertebræ, and form the lateral crests of the sacrum. The transverse tubercles of the first sacral vertebra are large and very distinct; they, together with the transverse tubercles of the second vertebra, give attachment to the horizontal parts of the posterior sacroiliac ligaments; those of the third vertebra give attachment to the oblique fasciculi of the posterior sacroiliac ligaments; and those of the fourth and fifth to the sacrotuberous ligaments.

Base (basis oss. sacri):

The base of the sacrum, which is broad and expanded, is directed upward and forward. In the middle is a large oval articular surface, the upper surface of the body of the first sacral vertebra, which is connected with the under surface of the body of the last lumbar vertebra by an intervertebral fibrocartilage. Behind this is the large triangular orifice of the sacral canal, which is completed by the laminæ and spinous process of the first sacral vertebra. The superior articular processes project from it on either side; they are oval, concave, directed backward and medialward, like the superior articular processes of a lumbar vertebra. They are attached to the body of the first sacral vertebra and to the alæ by short thick pedicles; on the upper surface of each pedicle is a vertebral notch, which forms the lower part of the foramen between the last lumbar and first sacral vertebræ. On either side of the body is a large triangular surface, which supports the Psoas major and the lumbosacral trunk, and in the articulated pelvis is continuous with the iliac fossa. This is called the ala; it is slightly concave from side to side, convex from before backward, and gives attachment to a few of the fibers of the Iliacus. The posterior fourth of the ala represents the transverse process, and its anterior three-fourths the costal process of the first sacral segment.

Pelvic Gridle: Sacrum, Coccyx and Os Coxae

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The bony structure at the base of the front limbs is the shoulder gridle and the one at the base of the hind limbs is the Pelvic gridle. The pelvic gridles of terrestial vartebrates are connected to the vertebral column and are much larger than their homologs in fish. These adaptation are required for weight bearing and muscle attachment in terrestial forms. In early land-dwelling vertebrates, the right and left limb gridles joined dorsally with the sacral vertebrae to form a bony ring around the rear of the trunk.
The adult human bony pelvic comprises three main elemnts: the right and left Os Coxae and the Sacrum and Coccyx. The sacrum and coccyx are part of the axial skeleton and are actually variably fused vartebrae. The bony pelvis functions to support and protect the abdominal and pelvic organs. In additon, it anchor muscles of the abdomen leg. Unlike the shoulder gridle, which is movable platform, the pelvic gridle is firmly fixed to the axial skeleton via its vertebral element, the sacrum.

The pelvis is divided by an oblique plane passing through the prominence of the sacrum, the arcuate and pectineal lines, and the upper margin of the symphysis pubis, into the greater and the lesser pelvis. The circumference of this plane is termed the linea terminalis or pelvic brim.

The Greater or False Pelvis (pelvis major):
The greater pelvis is the expanded portion of the cavity situated above and in front of the pelvic brim. It is bounded on either side by the ilium; in front it is incomplete, presenting a wide interval between the anterior borders of the ilia, which is filled up in the fresh state by the parietes of the abdomen; behind is a deep notch on either side between the ilium and the base of the sacrum. It supports the intestines, and transmits part of their weight to the anterior wall of the abdomen.

The Lesser or True Pelvis (pelvis minor):
The lesser pelvis is that part of the pelvic cavity which is situated below and behind the pelvic brim. Its bony walls are more complete than those of the greater pelvis. For convenience of description, it is divided into an inlet bounded by the superior circumference, and outlet bounded by the inferior circumference, and a cavity.

lateral view of the Vertebral Column

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the Thorax from infront

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different regions of the Vertbral column

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Thorax and sternum

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In primitive, air-breathin are fishes, breathing was accomplished by sawllowing movements in which air was gulped into the lungs. Early reptiles improved on this system when they evolved a means to respire via the muscuskeletal machanics of the thoracic skeleton. this was made possible as the thoracic ribs extended ventrally from the vertebrae column to reach the sternum. The sternum formed akind of ventral bony column that fused into a bony bar and anchored the distal ends of the ribs. Further soft tissue specializations led to more sophisticated breathing function.
Thorax
Or chest, is like basket or cage composed of cartilage and bone. It is attached dorsally to the vertbral column. It is also the base ehich upper limbs are attached. The major bones forming the thorax are the sternum and twelve ribs on each side.
Male or Female
The thorax of the female differs from that of the male as follows:
1. Its capacity is less.
2. The sternum is shorter.
3. The upper margin of the sternum is on a level with the lower part of the body of the third thoracic vertebra, whereas in the male it is on a level with the lower part of the body of the second.
4. The upper ribs are more movable, and so allow a greater enlargement of the upper part of the thorax.
Sternum
Or breastbone, function at its upper end to connect the shoulder gridle ( Clavicle and Scapula ) to the thorax.The sternum is an elongated, flattened bone, forming the middle portion of the anterior wall of the thorax. its margins articulate with the cartilages of the first seven pairs of ribs. It consists of three parts, named from above downward, the manubrium, the body or gladiolus, and the xiphoid process. The bone is composed of 3 main parts in adulthood but develops from six segements. This segment joints may all fuse in adulthood, but their location is indicated by the costal notches along each side of the sternum. Its average length in the adult is about 17 cm., and is rather greater in the male than in the female.

Ribs

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There are usually twelve ribs on each side of the thorax, for a total of twenty-four in adults. The number of ribs is variable,but this number may be increased by the development of a cervical or lumbar rib so there may be eleven or thirteen on a side. The upper ribs (1 - 7) atriculate directly with the sides of the sternum via cartilage.They are connected behind with the vertebral column. Ribs 8,9 and 10 are interconnected medially by common cartilages that attach to the sternum. The last two ribs, 11 and 12, have free floating ventral ends. all ribs articaulte via their proximal ends with thoracic vertebrae. The ribs usually increase in length from rib 1 to rib 7 and decrease from rib 7 to rib 12.
For studing ribs there are several sidings like:

Head : the swollwn proximal part of the rib
Neck : The short segment between the head and the rib's articulation with the transverse of the thoracic vertebrae
Tubercle : located on the posteroinferior corner of each ribs.
Angle : sharve curve in the bone lsteral to tubercle.
Shaft : the curved, tapering segment between the tubercle and the rib's distal (ventral)end.
Costal Groove : the grrove along the medial side of the inferior edge of the rib shaft.
Sternal End : the anterior (ventral) end of the shaft. Its surface change substantially with increasing the age.
Cranial (upper) Edge: for most of the ribs is blunt, smooth and convex.
Caudal (lower) Edge : for most of the ribs is sharp, with a costal groove on the medial surface.

The first seven ribs with the sternum are called true or vertebro-sternal ribs, the remaining five are false ribs.

Special ribs are : 1,2,10,11 and 12th.

for further information and photoes take a look at http://www.bartleby.com/107/28.html

Names of the Individual Vertebrae

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Individual vertebrae named according to region and position, from superior to inferior
Cervical – 7 vertebrae (C1-C7)
Thoracic – 12 vertebrae (T1-T12)
Lumbar – 5 vertebrae (L1-L5)
Sacral – 5 (fused) vertebrae (S1-S5)
Coccygeal – 3-5 vertebrae (Co1-Co5)

Skeleton's Parts

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The skeleton has two parts:
the Axial skeleton and the Appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton includes:
the skull, the hyoid bone, the vertebral column (spine, sacrum, and coccyx), the sternum, and the ribs. Its components are aligned along the long axis of the body.
The appendicular skeleton includes:
the bones of the upper extremities (arms, forearms, and hands), the pectoral (shoulder) girdle, the pelvic (hip) girdle, and the bones of the lower extremities (thigh, knee, leg, and foot). Its components are outside the body main axis.

Axial Skeleton

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The vertebral column has three groups of vertebrae and two sets of fused bones. These vertebrae include seven cervical (neck) vertebrae, twelve thoracic (upper back) vertebrae, and five lumbar (lower back) vertebrae. Five fused vertebrae form the sacrum and from three to five fused small vertebrae form the coccyx (tail bone). The vertebrae form a column of bone that protects the spinal cord. The thoracic vertebrae have facets (indentations) upon their surfaces that articulate (meet) with the ribs.
Curves
The cervical curve, convex forward, begins at the apex of the odontoid (tooth-like) process, and ends at the middle of the second thoracic vertebra; it is the least marked of all the curves. The thoracic curve, concave forward, begins at the middle of the second and ends at the middle of the twelfth thoracic vertebra. Its most prominent point behind corresponds to the spinous process of the seventh thoracic vertebra. The lumbar curve is more marked in the female than in the male; it begins at the middle of the last thoracic vertebra, and ends at the sacrovertebral angle. It is convex anteriorly, the convexity of the lower three vertebrae being much greater than that of the upper two. The pelvic curve begins at the sacrovertebral articulation, and ends at the point of the coccyx; its concavity is directed downward and forward.
The thoracic and pelvic curves are termed primary curves, because they alone are present during fetal life.In the early eymbro, the vertebral column is C-shaped, and the cervical and lumbar curvatures are not yet present in a newborn infant.
The cervical and lumbar curves are compensatory or secondary, and are developed after birth, the former when the child is able to hold up its head (at three or four months), and to sit upright (at nine months), the latter at twelve or eighteen months, when the child begins to walk.
True or False
The vertebrosternal (true) ribs are the first seven ribs; they are "true" because they attach directly to the sternum (breast bone). Ribs eight through twelve are the false ribs because they indirectly attach to the sternum or they lack a sternal attachment. Ribs eight through ten are the vertebrochondral ribs because they attach indirectly to the sternum by cartilage. Ribs eleven and twelve are called floating (vertebral) ribs because they do not attach to the sternum.
Hyoid Bone
In the middle line below the chin can be felt the body of the hyoid bone,- hyoid bone is very importanat for following the human language evolution- just below which is the prominence of the thyroid cartilage called "Adam's apple," better marked in men than in women.

Estimating Adult Age from the Dentition

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Once a permanent tooth erupts, it begins to wear. Rate and patterns of wear are governed by tooth developmental sequences, tooth morphology, tooth size, internal crown structure, tooth angulation, non dietary tooth use the biomechanics of chewing, and diet. If the rate of wear within the population is fairy homogeneous, it follows that the extent of wear is function of age. This fact can be used in assigning dental ages to adult specimens.
The first step id assessing age by dentition is the application of the seriation of all dentations based on development and wear.
Miles was the first to establish a scale of attrition based and development. The basics of technique are as utilized like this: A first molar accumulates about 6 years of wear before the second molar of the same individual erupts (assuming eruption at 6 and 12 years, respectively). When a similar amount of wear (6 year's worth) is found on a third molar of another individual (a molar assumed to have erupted at the age of 18), the age of that individual can be estimated as 18+6=24.

Estimating Subadult Age from the Dentition

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Eruption and wear of teeth have been used extensively in aging the human skeleton. Tooth development is more closely associated with chronological age than is development of more other skeletal parts, and it seems to be under tighter genetic control. Sex-based variation on development and eruption of teeth is most apparent at the canine position, and this tooth sould be afforded less attention when aging eruption dentitions. When aging the subadult is based on dentition, we must note all aspects of development, including the completeness of all crowns and roots (it means Formation) and the place of each tooth relative to alveolar margin ( Eruption). be sur to make different between eruption through the alveolar margin ( bonny part) or through the gum (soft tissue).
in addition dental develpoment is differnt to sex and population.

our teeth

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good site

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i just find a good site completely about human body this is a great refrnce specially about pictures.
http://www.besthealth.com/besthealth/bodyguide/bgready.html

Anatomoy of the Tooth

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Crown: part of the tooth covered by enamel.
Root: part of the tooth that anchors the tooth in the alveolus of the mandiable or maxilla.
Neck (Cervix): constricted part of th tooth at the junction of the crown and root.
Enamel: the specialized hard tissue that covers the crown,os both avascular and acellular. It is about 97% mineralized, essentially foosilized once it is formed.
Cervicoenamel line (Junction, CEJ): the line that encircling the crown which is the most rotward extent to enamel.
Dentinonamel junction (DEJ): the boundary between the enamel cap and the underlying dentin.
Dentin: the tissue that forms the core of the tooth.this tissue has no vascular supply but is supported by the vascular system in the pulp and is lined in the inner surface ( the walls of the pulp cavity) by odontoblasts, dentin-producing cells. Dentin undelies the enamel of the crown and encapsulates the pulp cavity, the central soft tissue space within a tooth. Occlusal wear may expose dentin, and beacuse dentin is softer than enamel th resulting expostures are usually occlusally oncave.
Pulp chamber: the expanded part of the pulp cavity at the crown end of the tooth.
Root canal: narrow end of the pulp cavity at the root end of the tooth.
Cementum: bonelike tissue that covers the external surface of tppth roots.
Calculus: calcified desposit commonly found on the sides of the tooth crowns.the origin of the calculus lie with plaque,colonies of microrganism that establish themselves on the teeth.
Pulp: the soft tissue within the pulp chamber. the include nerves and blood vessels.
Apical foramen: the oppening at each root Apex, or tip,through wich nerve fibres and vessels pass from the aveolar region to the pulp cavity.
Cusp: an occluslal projection of the crown. Major cusps of homonid molars are individually named: Protocone,Hypocone,Paracone,Metacone,Protoconid
,Hypoconid,Metaconid,Etoconid,Hypoconulid.
knowledge of these cusps,their reltive sizes and wear, is often valuable in identifying isolated teeth. Cups of the upper jaw end with the suffix -cone whereas the lower jaw end with the suffix -conid. the tips of the cusp is the apex. Ridges that descend from cusp Apices are Crests.
Fissure: a cleft on the occlusal surface between cusps. Fissures divide the cusps into patterns.the most widley aknowledged of these is the Y-5 Pattern, in pattern in which the five lower molar cusps are arranged in a Y Pattern.
*** The primitive mammalian cusp pattern was a triangle of cusps in both upper and lower molars. From this pattern a remarkable variety of forms has arisen through the evolution, ranging from the tall columnar molars of warthogs to the bladelike molars of some carnivors.
In humans, as in most other primates, the mesial (anterior) part of the molar is the Trigon (trigonid in lower molars). The distal (posterior) part of the primate molar, added to the modified original triangle of cusps, is the Talon ( or the Talonid in lower molars).

Dental Terminology

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Mammals have teeth of different sizes and shapes, a condition known as heterodonty, allowing different teeth to be specialized for different tasks. These specialized teeth include: Incisors (I) Canine teeth (C) Premolars (P) Molars (M)

the position of all teeth are indicated by numbers ,referring to the position that the tooth holds in tooth row ,thus incisiors can be 1s or 2s (central or lateral). Human canins are all 1s.Premolars can be 3s or 4s (or 1s or 2s for the non-paleontoligically inclined), and molars can be 1s,2s,3s.

When we want to describe a tooth ,we should write like this,for example

"Ldi2" :left deciduous second mandibular incisor

"RM1":right permanent first maxillary molar.

Dental formulae are used to indicate the number of each type of tooth for a given species. Because the jaw is bilaterally symetrical, only one half of the jaw is described. The incisors are indicated first, followed by the canine, promolars and molars. The maxillary arcade or upper jaw is listed over the mandibular arcade or lower jaw. this is the dental formula of human:

Deciduous : (upper jaw)2 1 0 2 / (lower jaw)2 1 0 2 = 10
Permanent : (upper jaw)2 1 2 3 / (lower jaw) 2 1 2 3 = 16

when we read a book -specially old ones- we may see some uncommon name of teeth like eye tooth. In human dental anatomy the canine teeth are refered to as the "eyeteeth" and the premolars as the "bicuspids".The third molars of humans are also known as "wisdom teeth".

Types of Dentition

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1. Diphyodont. Most mammals--humans included--typically develope and erupt into their jaws two generations of teeth. The term literally means "two generations of teeth."
2. Monophyodont. Some mammals--such as the manatee, seals, and walruses have only a single generation of teeth.
3. Polyphyodont. Most reptiles and fishes develope a lifetime of generations of successional teeth--as if on a conveyer belt. Such teeth have a brief functional life and are anatomically simple in design.
4. Homodont. In many vertebrates, all of the teeth in the jaw are alike. They differ from each other only in size. The alligator is an example of homodontism.
5. Heterodont. Most mammals, humans included, develope distinctive classes of teeth that are regionally specialized.
6. Anodontia is the developmental absence of teeth. Among mammals, the whalebone whale and the anteater are toothless; their ancestors had teeth. In humans, anodontia is a pathological condition. Partial anodontia is one or a few teeth missing.

Dentition

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Dentition is a term that describes all of the upper and lower teeth collectively.
Clinically, there are three dentitions.
The primary dentition consists of 20 teeth in all: ten upper and ten lower teeth. Primary teeth may also be called 'baby' teeth, deciduous, 'milk', or lacteal teeth. Primary teeth begin to appear at about age six months and are entirely replaced by about ages 12 - 13.
The mixed dentition is composed of both primary and permanent teeth. It commences with the eruption of the first of the permanent teeth at about age six, and ends with the loss of the last of the deciduous teeth at about the age of 12-13 years. The permanent dentition is composed of 32 teeth in all, 16 upper and 16 lower. Half of a dental arch (primary or permanent) is called a quadrant. The permanent teeth that replace deciduous teeth are call succedaneous teeth. (Succedaneous means literally, to replace. In dental science, permanent teeth that replace deciduous teeth are called successional teeth. Permanent molars, which replace nothing are called accessional teeth.)

dentation cusps

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our teeth

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dentition

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i wanna continue with human dentition,lets take a look:

Forza ITALIA

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Forza Azzurri
well, just like every other italian fan's, after 12 years, i'm very happy. congratulate to every one!!!!

man and monkey

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cranium

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" Elements of the Skull "

Skull: entire body framework of the head,including the lower jaw

Mandible: lower jaw

Cranium: skull without the mandible

Calvaria: cranium with out the face

Calotte: calvaria without the face

Splanchnocranium: facial skeleton

Neurocranium: braincase

" Bones of the Cranium "

Ethmoid
Floor of the cranium, inferior to the frontal bone and anterior to the sphenoid.Non-technically: Centre of the face, behind the nose.
Forms part of the nasal cavity and the orbits.Main support structure of the nasal cavity

Frontal
Forehead, extending down to form the upper surfaces of the orbits. Anterior roof of the skull.

Occipital
Back and base of the cranium, forms the back of the skull.Non-technically: Lower back of the head.
The occipital condyles (rounded surfaces at the base of the occipital bone) articulate with the atlas (first vertebra of the spine), enabling movement of the head relative to the spine.Has a large opening called the Foramen Magnus which the spinal cord passes through.

Parietal
Top and sides of the cranium, posterior roof of the skull.

Sphenoid
Anterior to the temporal bones and forms the base of cranium - behind the orbitals.Consists of a body, two "wings" and two "pterygoid processes" (not labelled on diagrams) that project downwards.
Articulates with the frontal, parietal and temporal bones.

Temporal
Sides of the skull, below the parietal bones, and above and behind the ears.

" Bones of the Face "

Hyoid
In the neck, below the tongue (held in place by ligaments and muscles between it and the styloid process of the temporal bone).
Supports the tongue, providing attachment sites for some tongue muscles, and also some muscles of the neck and pharynx.(Commonly fractured during strangulation, so studied in autopsies if strangulation suspected.)

Lacrimal
Behind and lateral to the nasal bone, also contribute to the orbits.(Smallest bones in the face.)
Contain foramina for the nasolacrimal ducts (tear ducts).

Mandible
Known as the lower jaw bone. Also forms the chin and sides of the face.(Largest, strongest facial bone.)
Bone into which the lower teeth are attached.The only moveable facial bone; motion of this bone is necessary for chewing food (the first stage of the digestion process).Each side of the mandible has a condyle and a coronoid process. The condyle articulates with the temporal bone to form the temporomandibular joint.

Maxilla
Upper jaw bone, which also forms the lower parts of the orbits.
Bone into which the upper teeth are attached.Each maxilla contains a maxillary sinus that drains fluid into the nasal cavity.

Nasal
Pair of small oblong bones that form the bridge and roof of the nose.

Palatine
Back of the roof of the mouth (hence not illustrated above). Small "L-shaped" bones.
Form the bottom of the orbitals and nasal cavities, and also the roof of the mouth.

Turbinator
Also known as Turbinate Bone and Nasal Concha. These terms refer to any of three thin bones that form the sides of the nasal cavity (not illustrated in the diagrams above).
Form the nasal cavities.

Vomer
Thin roughly triangular plate of bone on the floor of the nasal cavity and part of the nasal septum.
Separates the nasal cavities into left and right sides.

Zygomatic
Also known as Zygoma and Malar Bone.Commonly (non-medically) referred to as the Cheek Bone because it forms the prominent part of the cheeks. Also contributes to the orbits.

Directionel Terms

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Directional Terms ,in osteology it is useful to refer the direction of motion or place ment of various skelton parts,most of these direction used for mammals not only human body. these experssion are used for the cranium.

Superior: toward the head end of the homonid body.
Inferior: opposide of the superior,for homonids,body parts away from the head,Caudal,toward a tail,is often used in the description of quadrupedal anatomy.
Anterior: toward the front of homonid body.Ventral , toward the belly,may be used homologously for bipeds and quadrupedals.
Posterior: opposite of the anterior,for homonids,toward the back of individual.Dorsal is often used for homologous parts of the quatruped anatomy.
Medial: toward the midline.
Lateral: opposit of the midline.away from the midline.
Proximal: nearest the axial skeleton, usually used for limb bones.
Distal: opposite of the proximal.farthest from the axial skeleton.
External: outer.
Internal: opposite of the external; inside.
Endocranial: inner surface of the cranial valut .
Ectocarnial: outer surface of the cranial valut.
Superficail: close to surface
Deep: opposite of the superficial, far from the surface.
Subcutaneous: just below the skin.

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look again to the cranium

The bones in our cranium

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lets know much about skull:
The cranium is that part of the skull that holds and protects the brain in a large cavity, called the cranial vault. Eight plate-like bones form the human cranium by fitting together at joints called sutures. The most important of these cranial bones for the appearance of the face is the frontal bone, which underlies the top of the face above the eyeballs. The human skull also includes 14 facial bones that form the lower front of the skull and provide the framework for most of the face that is important to psychological research. These 22 skull bones form other, smaller cavities besides the cranial vault, including those for the eyes, the internal ear, the nose, and the mouth. The important facial bones include the jaw bone or mandible, the maxilla or upper jaw, the zygomatic or cheek bone, and the nasal bone.
The skull bones are associated with many other features. Processes are areas where the bones have extra tissue to hold muscles and ligaments; lines are grooves in the bone from other developmental processes; foramina are holes in the bones through which nerves and blood vessels pass; sinuses are empty spaces in the bones that make the skull lighter. Some of these features affect the physiognomy of the face due to variations in thickness, size, location, and shape.

The cranium (general)

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The Cranium, also called the "Skull," describes the skeleton of the head, face and mandible.
It is a portion of the axial skeleton, or that portion associated with the central nervous system. Those portions of the skeleton not associated with the central nervous system, are associated with the appendicular skeleton or the extremities (i.e., the arms and legs).
The axial skeleton consists of the cranium, all the osseous elements of the vertebral column, the ribs, and the sternum.
In an adult, various of the bones of the cranium are paired left and a right, while others, which cross the mid-sagittal plane, are unpaired. Furthermore, the bones of the skull are classified as those which are called Cranial Bones, or contribute to that portion surrounding the brain, or Facial Bones(i.e., those which do not assist in forming the braincase).

Each of the bones of the cranium posses a number of distinctive features which not only allow the bone to be identified, but also permit its exact location and orientation in the body to be determined (i.e., as a left or right, medial- lateral, posterior-anterior, inferior-superior, etc.).

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The names in black are facial bones, those in red are cranial bones, and those in blue are features of the bones.

Human Cranium,Frontal View

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our body

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Hovalmahboub

Hello everyone

in this blog i wanna share my idea's ,studings and every thing i know about physical anthropology,so you can use it. first of all i will start ith Anatomy and related body science which is very useful for being a good physical anthropology

my favorite part in hole of this field is evolution and then Homo Floresiensis.

i will also try my best to link best physical anthropology sites.

well done

farnaz